1 Introduction

Mosquito-borne diseases represent a significant global health challenge, affecting over 40% of the world's population and causing millions of deaths annually. Diseases such as malaria, dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, and Zika virus are transmitted by various mosquito species, with Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus being the primary vectors (Jones et al., 2020). The rapid spread of these diseases, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, underscores the urgent need for effective mosquito control strategies (Benelli and Mehlhorn, 2016).

The importance of mosquito control in public health cannot be overstated (Salazar et al., 2019). Effective control measures can significantly reduce the incidence of mosquito-borne diseases, thereby decreasing morbidity and mortality rates. Traditional methods of mosquito control have primarily relied on chemical insecticides and environmental management. However, these methods face several limitations, including the development of insecticide resistance, high costs, and negative environmental impacts (Yakob and Walker, 2016). The emergence of insecticide-resistant mosquito populations has rendered many chemical control methods less effective, necessitating the exploration of alternative strategies (Onen et al., 2023).

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in physical and mechanical methods for mosquito control (Benelli et al., 2016). These approaches offer several advantages over chemical methods, including reduced environmental impact and the potential for sustainable, long-term control. Innovative physical and mechanical methods, such as genetic control technologies, the use of endosymbiotic bacteria like Wolbachia, and the development of mosquito traps and barriers, have shown promise in reducing mosquito populations and interrupting disease transmission (Achee et al., 2019). These methods are often integrated into broader vector control programs to enhance their effectiveness and sustainability (Wang et al., 2021).

This study evaluates the current state of physical and mechanical methods for mosquito control; highlights their potential benefits and limitations; provides a comprehensive overview of innovative mosquito control technologies; assesses their efficacy in reducing mosquito populations and disease transmission, and identify areas for future research and development. By synthesizing the latest research findings, this study aims to inform public health strategies and contribute to the development of more effective and sustainable mosquito control programs.

2 Historical Background

2.1 Traditional mosquito control techniques

Traditional mosquito control methods have primarily relied on chemical insecticides and environmental management. The use of insecticides, such as DDT, has been a cornerstone in reducing mosquito populations and controlling diseases like malaria. However, the widespread use of these chemicals has led to significant issues, including the development of insecticide resistance among mosquito populations and environmental concerns due to the persistence of these chemicals in ecosystems. Additionally, biological control methods, such as introducing natural predators or pathogens to target mosquito larvae, have been explored as eco-friendly alternatives to chemical insecticides (Zheng et al., 2019).

2.2 Evolution of mechanical control methods

Mechanical control methods have evolved significantly over the years, moving from simple physical barriers to more sophisticated trapping systems. Early mechanical methods included the use of bed nets to physically block mosquitoes from reaching humans. These nets have been enhanced with insecticide treatments to increase their efficacy. For instance, long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) have been widely adopted and have shown effectiveness in reducing malaria transmission (Seidou et al., 2023). However, the rise of insecticide resistance has necessitated further innovation. Recent advancements include the development of hybrid mosquito trapping bed nets, such as the PermaNet 2.0, which combines physical trapping with insecticidal action. These nets have shown increased mosquito mortality rates by incorporating an insecticide-free trap compartment, which enhances the mechanical trapping effect (Bouyer et al., 2020). Additionally, the use of odour-baited traps, which attract mosquitoes using synthetic chemical attractants, represents a significant innovation in mechanical control methods. These traps have been successfully implemented in projects like SolarMal, demonstrating their potential to suppress mosquito populations and reduce malaria transmission (Hiscox et al., 2016).

2.3 Development of physical barriers and traps

The development of physical barriers and traps has been a critical area of innovation in mosquito control (Guo et al., 2022). Traditional bed nets have been improved with the addition of insecticidal treatments, but the need for non-chemical methods has driven the development of new trapping technologies. For example, the SolarMal project in Kenya utilized solar-powered mosquito traps that emit CO₂ and use chemical lures to attract and capture mosquitoes. This method has shown promise in reducing mosquito populations and malaria transmission in targeted areas (Hiscox et al., 2012). Another innovative approach involves the use of electrostatic coatings on netting to enhance the bioavailability of insecticides. This method increases the exposure of mosquitoes to insecticides, even those that have developed resistance, thereby improving the efficacy of existing control tools. Additionally, the integration of sterile insect techniques (SIT) and incompatible insect techniques (IIT) has shown potential in eliminating mosquito populations by releasing sterilized or incompatible males to reduce reproduction rates (Andriessen et al., 2015). Overall, the evolution of mechanical control methods and the development of physical barriers and traps represent significant advancements in the fight against mosquito-borne diseases. These innovations offer promising alternatives to traditional chemical-based strategies, addressing the challenges of insecticide resistance and environmental impact (Machani et al., 2022).

3 Types of Physical and Mechanical Methods

3.1 Mosquito traps and attractants

Mosquito traps and attractants have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional insecticide-based methods for mosquito control. These traps often utilize attractants such as carbon dioxide, octenol, and synthetic human odors to lure mosquitoes into traps where they are subsequently captured or killed. For instance, a study conducted on Key Island, Florida, evaluated the efficacy of carbon dioxide and octenol-baited traps, demonstrating a reduction in mosquito abundance in resort areas, although the results were not statistically significant (Figure 1) (Knols et al., 2023). Similarly, the Ifakara Odor-Baited Station (OBS) has shown high efficacy in trapping and killing disease-transmitting mosquitoes, including Anopheles arabiensis and Culex species, by using synthetic human odors and insecticides (Kline and Lemire, 1998). Another notable example is the SolarMal project, which employs odor-baited traps powered by solar panels to attract and capture Anopheles mosquitoes, aiming to reduce malaria transmission in Western Kenya (Okumu et al., 2010). These studies highlight the potential of attractant-baited traps as an environmentally friendly and effective method for mosquito control.

Knols et al. (2023) found that the BG-Mosquitaire CO₂ trap is an effective tool for attracting and capturing mosquitoes by utilizing a combination of carbon dioxide and lactic acid as attractants. The trap's design, which includes a fan to create airflow and a catch bag to contain the mosquitoes, ensures that the insects are efficiently captured without escape. The addition of a roof protects the trap from environmental factors such as rain, enhancing its durability and effectiveness in field conditions. Moreover, the use of a CO₂-producing system based on a water, sugar, and yeast mixture, along with an overflow bottle to prevent clogging, ensures a steady and consistent release of CO₂, which is crucial for the trap's operation. This system presents a practical and cost-effective solution for mosquito control in various environments.

3.2 Physical barriers

Physical barriers, such as insecticide-impregnated shade cloths and netting, provide a straightforward yet effective means of reducing mosquito-human contact. In a study on Key Island, Florida, insecticide-impregnated shade cloth targets were used alongside baited traps to create a barrier that reduced mosquito abundance in resort areas. The use of such barriers can be particularly effective in areas where chemical control methods are limited due to resistance or environmental concerns. Additionally, the SolarMal project incorporates physical barriers in the form of traps that prevent mosquitoes from entering human dwellings, thereby reducing the risk of malaria transmission (Hiscox et al., 2012). These barriers can be strategically placed around residential areas, recreational sites, and other high-risk zones to provide continuous protection against mosquito bites.

3.3 Mechanical removal techniques

Mechanical removal techniques involve the direct capture and elimination of mosquitoes through various trapping methods. High-density trapping, for example, has been shown to be highly effective in rapidly reducing mosquito populations. A study on Puerco Island, Philippines, demonstrated the complete elimination of Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes within five months using odor-baited traps at a density of 10 traps per hectare. Another study in Korea employed mass trapping with digital mosquito monitoring systems and MOSHOLE-PRO units, resulting in a significant reduction in mosquito communities within the study area. These mechanical removal techniques offer a pesticide-free, environmentally friendly approach to mosquito control, making them suitable for use in sensitive natural areas and regions with high insecticide resistance. In summary, innovative physical and mechanical methods, including mosquito traps and attractants, physical barriers, and mechanical removal techniques, provide effective and environmentally sustainable alternatives to traditional chemical control methods. These approaches can be tailored to specific environments and mosquito species, offering versatile solutions for reducing mosquito populations and mitigating the spread of mosquito-borne diseases (Na and Kim, 2023).

4 Innovative Technologies in Mosquito Control

4.1 Drone-assisted mosquito surveillance and control

Drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), have emerged as a powerful tool in mosquito control, offering several innovative applications. One significant use is the aerial application of larvicides. For instance, a study demonstrated the effectiveness of drones in applying Aquatain Mosquito Formulation (AMF) to rice paddies, resulting in a significant reduction in mosquito larvae and pupae, with over 90% fewer emerging adults compared to control paddies (Figure 2) (Mukabana et al., 2022). Additionally, drones have been employed to release sterile male mosquitoes, ensuring homogeneous coverage and maintaining the quality of the released insects, which is crucial for the success of the sterile insect technique (SIT) (Hiscox et al., 2016). Furthermore, drones can be used for the automatic detection of potential mosquito breeding sites through aerial imagery, significantly enhancing the efficiency of vector control programs (Bravo et al., 2021).

Mukabana et al. (2022) found that the use of the Agras MG-1 S drone for spraying arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in rice paddies offers a precise and efficient method for applying different treatment doses across large agricultural areas. The study involved nine experimental paddies within the Cheju rice irrigation scheme, where control, low-dose, and high-dose AMF treatments were systematically applied. The controlled distribution of AMF using drone technology allowed for the careful monitoring of its impact on crop growth and soil health. The study highlights the potential of drone-assisted application in optimizing resource use while ensuring uniform treatment coverage, which is especially beneficial in regions like Unguja island in Zanzibar, where traditional farming methods may be less effective. This approach demonstrates significant advancements in sustainable agriculture practices by integrating modern technology with traditional crop management.

4.2 Automated mosquito trapping systems

Automated mosquito trapping systems have shown promise in controlling mosquito populations by leveraging advanced technologies. The SolarMal project in Kenya implemented solar-powered mosquito trapping systems across households, aiming to suppress vector populations to levels where malaria transmission is no longer possible. This approach not only provided continuous mosquito monitoring but also offered additional benefits such as electric light and mobile phone charging, which increased the acceptability and adherence to the intervention (Kwan et al., 2019). Another innovative trapping system involves a low-cost, passive release device designed to attract, repel, or kill mosquitoes using volatile compounds. This device is particularly useful in economically repressed environments, providing a reliable and affordable solution for mosquito control (Lees et al., 2015).

4.3 Ultrasonic devices for mosquito deterrence

Ultrasonic devices have been explored as a non-chemical method for deterring mosquitoes. These devices emit high-frequency sound waves that are purported to be unpleasant to mosquitoes, thereby reducing their presence in treated areas. While the effectiveness of ultrasonic devices in mosquito control is still under investigation, they represent a potential tool for integrated pest management strategies, especially in areas where chemical control methods are less desirable or feasible (Bouyer et al., 2020).

4.4 Use of light and sound for mosquito repellence

The use of light and sound as mosquito repellents is another innovative approach being explored. Certain wavelengths of light and specific sound frequencies can deter mosquitoes, reducing their activity and biting rates. For example, solar-powered traps that utilize light to attract mosquitoes have been integrated into mass trapping systems, providing a sustainable and eco-friendly solution for mosquito control (Hiscox et al., 2016). Additionally, combining light and sound technologies with other control methods, such as SIT, can enhance the overall effectiveness of mosquito management programs. By integrating these innovative technologies, mosquito control programs can achieve more effective and sustainable outcomes, addressing the growing challenges posed by mosquito-borne diseases.

5 Effectiveness and Challenges

5.1 Comparative analysis of physical and mechanical methods

Physical and mechanical methods for mosquito control have shown varying degrees of effectiveness. For instance, the use of nanoparticles synthesized through plant-mediated processes has demonstrated significant potential in controlling mosquito populations. These nanoparticles are effective at very low doses and can act as toxic agents against mosquito larvae and as oviposition deterrents for adults. However, challenges such as understanding the precise mechanisms of action and the potential environmental impact of residual nanoparticles remain (Bouyer et al., 2020). The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is another promising method. It involves releasing sterilized male mosquitoes to reduce the population over time. This technique has been successfully applied in agricultural pest management and is now being adapted for mosquito control. However, the implementation of SIT requires careful planning and phased conditional approaches to ensure its success (Benelli et al., 2017). Mechanical methods, such as the use of portable devices for larva suction, have also been developed. These devices have shown high efficiency in laboratory and field tests, significantly reducing the presence of larvae in water containers. This method is particularly effective in areas with limited access to clean water (Anders et al., 2018).

5.2 Field studies and laboratory results

Field studies and laboratory results have provided valuable insights into the effectiveness of various mosquito control methods. For example, the AWED trial in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, tested the deployment of Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes to reduce dengue incidence. The study used a cluster-randomized controlled trial design and showed promising results in reducing dengue virus transmission (Jones et al., 2020). Laboratory tests of the portable Aedes Sp larvae suction device demonstrated its effectiveness in capturing larvae quickly and efficiently. Field tests further confirmed its utility in reducing larval density in household water containers, making it a practical tool for community-based mosquito control. The use of SIT has also been evaluated in various pilot studies. These studies emphasize the importance of integrating stakeholder engagement, selecting suitable field sites, and building a robust vector management strategy to ensure the success of SIT programs (Oliva et al., 2021).

5.3 Challenges in implementation

Despite the promising results, several challenges hinder the widespread implementation of these innovative mosquito control methods. One major challenge is the development of resistance in mosquito populations. Traditional insecticide-based methods have led to significant resistance, necessitating the development of alternative strategies (Benelli et al., 2016). Another challenge is the environmental impact of new control methods. For instance, the use of nanoparticles raises concerns about their fate in aquatic environments and potential toxicity to non-target organisms. Standardizing the chemical composition of botanical products used in nanoparticle synthesis and optimizing production processes are crucial steps to address these concerns. The implementation of SIT and other genetic control methods also faces challenges related to public acceptance and regulatory approval. Transparent communication and stakeholder engagement are essential to address safety and efficacy concerns and to gain public support (Benelli and Beier, 2017). In conclusion, while innovative physical and mechanical methods for mosquito control show great promise, their effectiveness and implementation are subject to various challenges. Continued research, stakeholder engagement, and careful planning are essential to overcome these obstacles and achieve sustainable mosquito control (Pascawati and Satoto, 2023).

6 Case Study

6.1 Case study 1: implementation of CO₂-based traps in urban areas

In Camargue, France, a study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of CO₂-based mosquito traps as an alternative to insecticide spraying. Sixteen Techno Bam traps emitting CO₂ and using octenol lures were deployed in a village of 600 inhabitants from April to November 2016. The traps achieved an overall performance rate of 70%, significantly reducing the populations of Ochlerotatus caspius and Oc. detritus by 74% and 98%, respectively (Hoshi et al., 2019). However, the traps were less effective against Anopheles hyrcanus, capturing only 46% of this species. The environmental impact was minimal, with non-target insect captures mostly limited to small chironomids. The study concluded that CO₂-based traps could be a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional insecticide spraying for mosquito control in urban areas (Marina et al., 2022).

6.2 Case study 2: use of drones for mosquito control in rural regions

A pilot trial in Unguja island, Zanzibar, Tanzania, explored the use of drones for the aerial application of Aquatain Mosquito Formulation (AMF), a larvicidal surface film, in irrigated rice paddies (Bouyer et al., 2020). The study involved three treatments: control (drone spraying with water), drone spraying with 1 mL/m², and drone spraying with 5 mL/m² of AMF. The results showed significant reductions in mosquito larvae and pupae, with over 90% fewer emerging adults compared to control paddies. The residual effect of AMF lasted for at least five weeks, with larval density reductions reaching 94.7% in week 5 and 99.4% in week 4 for the 1 and 5 mL/m² treatments, respectively. This study suggests that drones can effectively manage mosquito populations over large areas at a low cost, enhancing the role of larval source management in malaria control efforts (Poulin et al., 2017).

6.3 Results and observations

The implementation of CO₂-based traps in urban areas and the use of drones for mosquito control in rural regions have shown promising results (Stanton et al., 2020). The CO₂-based traps in Camargue achieved a significant reduction in mosquito populations, particularly for Ochlerotatus caspius and Oc. detritus, with minimal environmental impact. On the other hand, the drone-based application of AMF in Zanzibar demonstrated a high efficacy in reducing mosquito larvae and pupae, with a prolonged residual effect, making it a viable option for large-scale mosquito control (Mukabana et al., 2022). Additionally, a study in southern Mexico compared ground release and drone-mediated aerial release of sterile Aedes aegypti males. The ground release method resulted in higher capture rates of sterile males, but the drone method provided quicker and more extensive coverage with fewer technicians required. However, modifications are needed to improve the efficiency and reduce the physical injury of mosquitoes during drone releases (Figure 3) (Marina et al., 2022). Another study in Brazil confirmed that drones could release sterile male mosquitoes without compromising their quality, ensuring homogeneous coverage and effective population suppression. These case studies highlight the potential of innovative physical and mechanical methods for mosquito control, offering effective and environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional insecticide-based approaches.

Marina et al. (2022) found that the spatial distribution and recapture rates of sterile Aedes aegypti males varied significantly depending on the release method used. The study compared ground and aerial releases in Hidalgo village, demonstrating that ground release resulted in higher concentrations of recaptures within certain localized areas, suggesting a more clustered distribution of sterile males. In contrast, aerial release led to a more dispersed distribution of recaptures, covering a broader area but with fewer males recaptured per unit area. This suggests that while aerial release may cover larger areas, ground release might be more effective in creating dense populations of sterile males in targeted zones, potentially improving the efficacy of mosquito population suppression efforts. The findings highlight the importance of selecting an appropriate release method based on the specific objectives of mosquito control programs.

7 Future Directions

7.1 Potential for integration with biological control methods

The integration of innovative physical and mechanical methods with biological control strategies presents a promising avenue for sustainable mosquito management. Biological control agents, such as fish, amphibians, copepods, and entomopathogenic bacteria, have shown potential in reducing mosquito populations without the adverse effects associated with chemical insecticides (Benelli et al., 2016). Combining these biological agents with novel physical methods, such as the use of green-fabricated nanoparticles, could enhance the efficacy of mosquito control programs. For instance, nanoparticles can reduce the motility of mosquito larvae, making them more susceptible to predation by biological control agents (Rose, 2001). Additionally, genetic control technologies, including the release of sterile or genetically modified mosquitoes, can be integrated with biological control to create a multifaceted approach that targets multiple stages of the mosquito lifecycle.

7.2 Development of new technologies

The development of new technologies is crucial for advancing mosquito control methods. Recent innovations include the use of green-synthesized nanoparticles, which offer an eco-friendly alternative to traditional insecticides. These nanoparticles can act as toxic agents against mosquito larvae and as oviposition deterrents for adult mosquitoes. Furthermore, genetic control strategies, such as gene drives and the use of Wolbachia bacteria, are being explored for their potential to reduce mosquito populations and block disease transmission. The sterile insect technique (SIT) has also seen significant advancements, with improved methods for mass rearing, irradiation, and release of sterile mosquitoes (Lacey and Orr, 1994). Continued research and development in these areas are essential for creating more effective and sustainable mosquito control technologies.

7.3 Policy and regulatory considerations

The successful implementation of innovative mosquito control methods requires supportive policy and regulatory frameworks. Regulatory agencies must evaluate the safety and efficacy of new technologies, such as genetically modified mosquitoes and nanoparticles, to ensure they do not pose risks to human health or the environment (Benelli et al., 2017). Policies should also promote the integration of these new methods into existing mosquito control programs, encouraging a shift away from reliance on chemical insecticides. Additionally, international collaboration and harmonization of regulations can facilitate the deployment of these technologies in regions most affected by mosquito-borne diseases. Policymakers must also consider the socio-economic impacts of new mosquito control methods and ensure that they are accessible and acceptable to local communities.

7.4 Education and public awareness campaigns

Education and public awareness campaigns are vital for the acceptance and success of new mosquito control methods. Public understanding of the benefits and safety of innovative technologies, such as SIT and genetic control, can help mitigate resistance and foster community support. Educational initiatives should focus on informing communities about the importance of integrated mosquito management and the role of new technologies in reducing disease transmission. Engaging local stakeholders and involving them in the planning and implementation of mosquito control programs can enhance their effectiveness and sustainability. Public awareness campaigns should also address common misconceptions and provide clear, evidence-based information about the safety and efficacy of new mosquito control methods (Achee et al., 2019). By exploring these future directions, researchers and policymakers can develop more effective and sustainable strategies for controlling mosquito populations and reducing the burden of mosquito-borne diseases.

8 Concluding Remarks

The review of innovative physical and mechanical methods for mosquito control has highlighted several promising strategies. Green-fabricated nanoparticles have shown potential as toxic agents against mosquito larvae and as oviposition deterrents, with minimal non-target effects. The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) and its enhanced versions, such as the Phased Conditional Approach (PCA) and the combination of SIT with the Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT), have demonstrated significant advancements in reducing mosquito populations . Additionally, novel bednet designs, such as the T-LLIN, have improved mosquito trapping and killing efficiency, even in the context of insecticide resistance. Electrostatic coating of insecticides has also been effective in overcoming pyrethroid resistance in mosquitoes. These findings underscore the importance of integrating multiple innovative approaches to achieve effective mosquito control.

Innovation in mosquito control is crucial due to the increasing resistance to traditional insecticides and the global spread of mosquito-borne diseases. The development of green-fabricated nanoparticles offers an eco-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides, reducing environmental impact and non-target toxicity. The SIT and IIT approaches provide sustainable solutions by reducing reliance on chemical insecticides and minimizing resistance development. The use of electrostatic coatings to enhance insecticide efficacy represents a significant breakthrough in managing resistant mosquito populations. These innovative methods not only improve the effectiveness of mosquito control but also contribute to public health by reducing the incidence of mosquito-borne diseases.

Future research should focus on understanding the precise mechanisms of action of green-fabricated nanoparticles and their long-term environmental impacts. Standardizing the chemical composition of botanical products used in nanoparticle synthesis and optimizing production methods for large-scale application are also essential. Further development and field testing of SIT and IIT, particularly in combination, are recommended to refine these techniques and ensure their effectiveness in diverse ecological settings. Additionally, exploring the potential of electrostatic coatings for various insecticide classes and their application in different mosquito control devices could enhance resistance management strategies. Finally, integrating these innovative methods into comprehensive, area-wide integrated pest management programs will be critical for sustainable mosquito control and disease prevention.

Acknowledgments

EmtoSci Publisher appreciates the valuable feedback from the reviewers.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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